What Was Cool Jazz Rebelling Agains

The Jazz Age

Jazz music exploded as popular amusement in the 1920s and brought African-American civilisation to the white center class.

Learning Objectives

Clarify the development of jazz during the 1920s

Cardinal Takeaways

Cardinal Points

• The Jazz Age was a post-World War I motion in the 1920s from which jazz music and trip the light fantastic emerged. Although the era ended with the outset of the Great Low in 1929, jazz has lived on in American popular civilization.
• The nativity of jazz music is credited to African Americans, but both blackness and white Americans alike are responsible for its immense rise in popularity.
• The rise of jazz coincided with the ascent of radio circulate and recording technology, which spawned the popular "potter palm" shows that included big-band jazz performances.
• Female singers such every bit Bessie Smith emerged during this period of postwar equality and open sexuality, paving the way for future female artists.

Primal Terms

• Charleston: A 1920s-era dance popularized by African Americans and named for the city of Charleston, South Carolina.
• potter palm: A popular type of radio show consisting of amateur concerts and big-band jazz performances broadcast from cities such as New York and Chicago.
• flapper: A young woman whose unconventional habiliment and progressive attitude personified the costless spirit of the Roaring Twenties and the Jazz Age.

If freedom was the mindset of the Roaring Twenties, then jazz was the soundtrack. The Jazz Age was a cultural menstruum and movement that took identify in America during the 1920s from which both new styles of music and dance emerged. Largely credited to African Americans employing new musical techniques along with traditional African traditions, jazz soon expanded to America's white eye class.

Birth of Jazz

Following World War I, large numbers of jazz musicians migrated from New Orleans to major northern cities such every bit Chicago and New York, leading to a wider dispersal of jazz as different styles adult in different cities. As the 1920s progressed, jazz rose in popularity and helped to generate a cultural shift. Because of its popularity in speakeasies, illegal nightclubs where alcohol was sold during Prohibition, and its proliferation due to the emergence of more advanced recording devices, jazz became very popular in a short amount of time, with stars including Duke Ellington, Cab Calloway, and Chick Webb. Several famous entertainment venues such as the Apollo Theater and the Cotton Guild came to epitomize the Jazz Age.

Cab Calloway: Cab Calloway became 1 of the almost popular musicians of the Jazz Historic period in the 1920s.

Growth of Jazz

African-American jazz was played more than frequently on urban radio stations than on their suburban counterparts. Young people of the 1920s were influenced by jazz to rebel against the traditional civilisation of previous generations, a rebellion that went hand-in-hand with fads such as the bold fashion statements of the flappers and new radio concerts.

Dances such as the Charleston, developed by African Americans, instantly became popular among different demographics, including among young white people. With the introduction of large-scale radio broadcasts in 1922, Americans were able to experience dissimilar styles of music without physically visiting a jazz society. Through its broadcasts and concerts, the radio provided Americans with a trendy new avenue for exploring unfamiliar cultural experiences from the condolement of their living rooms. The most popular type of radio show was a "potter palm," an amateur concert and big-ring jazz operation broadcast from New York and Chicago.

The King & Carter Jazzing Orchestra, 1921: During the Jazz Historic period, popular music included current dance songs, novelty songs, and evidence tunes.

Due to the racial prejudice prevalent at most radio stations, white American jazz artists received much more air fourth dimension than blackness jazz artists such equally Louis Armstrong, Jelly Curl Morton, and Joe "King" Oliver. Big-band jazz, like that of James Reese in Europe and Fletcher Henderson in New York, was also popular on the radio and brought an African-American style and influence to a predominantly white cultural scene.

"The Jelly Whorl Blues": "The Jelly Roll Dejection" was one of the first jazz songs to reach a widespread audience through radio play.

Flappers and Ladies of Jazz

The surfacing of flappers—women noted for their flamboyant manner of dress, progressive attitudes, and modernized morals—began to captivate society during the Jazz Historic period. This coincided with a menstruation in American social club during which many more than opportunities became bachelor for women, in their social lives and especially in the amusement industry.

Several famous female musicians emerged during the 1920s, including Bessie Smith, who garnered attention not only because she was a corking singer, merely too because she was a black woman. It was not until the 1930s and 1940s, however, that female person jazz and blues singers such as Smith, Ella Fitzgerald, and Billie Holiday were truly recognized and respected as successful artists throughout the music industry. Their persistence paved the way for many more female artists who came afterward.

Bessie Smith: The music of singer Bessie Smith was immensely pop during the Jazz Historic period, and she both influenced and paved the way for generations of female person artists.

Although the Jazz Age ended as the Great Depression struck and victimized America throughout the 1930s, jazz has lived on in American pop culture and remains a vibrant musical genre to this day.

Art Movements of the 1920s

Art Deco was a dominant design way of the 1920s artistic era that also was influenced past the Dada, Expressionist, and Surrealist movements.

Learning Objectives

Draw popular art movements of the 1920s

Key Takeaways

Fundamental Points

• The 1920s was a menses of significant artistic growth that included definable schools of design, architecture, and art that are still recognizable and influential today.
• Art Deco was the dominant style of blueprint and architecture in the 1920s. It originated and spread throughout Europe before making its presence felt in North American design.
• Expressionism and Surrealism were popular art movements in the 1920s that originated in Europe. Surrealism involved elements of surprise and unexpected juxtapositions, and both movements embraced a philosophy of nonconformity.
• Dada  began in Zürich, Switzerland, and the style incorporated nonsense, applesauce, and cubist elements.

Key Terms

• Dada: A cultural move that began in Zürich, Switzerland, during World War I and peaked from 1916 to 1920. The motion primarily involved visual arts, literature (mainly poetry), theatre, and graphic blueprint, and was characterized by nihilism, deliberate irrationality, disillusionment, cynicism, gamble, randomness, and the rejection of the prevailing standards in art.
• Expressionism and Surrealism: Avant-garde modernist cultural movements, originating in Europe in the early twentieth century.
• Art Deco: An eclectic artistic and design style that began in Paris in the 1920s and flourished internationally throughout the 1930s and into the World War II era.

The 1920s was a remarkable period of creativity that brought forth new, bold movements that changed the style the world looked at itself, both externally and internally. In pattern and architecture, Art Deco originated in Europe and spread throughout the continent before its influence moved beyond the Atlantic to North America. In fine art, the movements known as Expressionism, Dada, and Surrealism all played major roles in reconfiguring the focus and perception not only of visual arts, but also of literature, drama, and design.

Art Deco

Art Deco was a ascendant way in blueprint and compages of the 1920s. Originating in Europe, it spread throughout western Europe and Due north America in the mid-1920s and remained popular through the 1930s and early 1940s, waning simply after World War Two. The name "Art Deco" is brusk for Arts Décoratifs, which came from the Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes (International Exposition of Mod Decorative and Industrial Arts) held in Paris in 1925. The first apply of the term is attributed to architect Charles-Edouard Jeanneret-Gris, known as "Le Corbusier," who wrote a series of articles titled, "1925 Expo: Arts Déco," in his periodical, L'Esprit Nouveau.

The eclectic style emerged from the years between Globe War I and Earth War 2, often referred to as the interwar menses, and combined traditional craft motifs with Machine Age imagery and materials and an embrace of technology. Visually it is characterized by rich colors, lavish ornamentation, and geometric shapes. Artists employing the Fine art Deco style frequently drew inspiration from nature and initially favored curved lines, though rectilinear designs became increasingly popular.

The Chrysler Edifice: Art Deco architectural style in the United States was epitomized by the Chrysler Building in New York Metropolis.

In the United States, New York Urban center'southward Chrysler Edifice typified the Fine art Deco style. Other American examples can exist institute in Chicago, Los Angeles, and San Francisco. The Hoover Dam, constructed between 1931 and 1936 on the border betwixt Nevada and Arizona, includes Art Deco motifs throughout the structure including its h2o-intake towers and contumely elevator doors.

Expressionism, Dada, and Surrealism

German Expressionism began earlier World State of war I and exerted a strong influence on artists who followed throughout the 1920s. Initially focused on verse and painting, Expressionism typically presented the world from a solely subjective perspective, radically distorting it for an emotional effect that evokes moods or ideas rather than physical reality. Many artists, all the same, began to oppose Expressionist tendencies as the decade avant-garde.

The works of Vincent van Gogh and Edvard Munch'due south famous 1893 painting, The Scream, are thought to have influenced Expressionists, who counted among their numbers painters such as Wassily Kandinsky, Erich Heckel, and Franz Marc, besides equally dancer Mary Wigman.

The Scream: Edvard Munch's 1893 painting, The Scream, influenced twentieth-century Expressionist artists.

Dada began in Zurich, Switzerland, during World War I and became an international phenomenon, although information technology was initially an breezy motion intended to protestation the outbreak of Globe War I and the bourgeois, nationalist, and colonialist interests that Dadaists believed were root causes of the conflict. The movement opposed cultural and intellectual conformity in art and in society in general, usually displaying political affinities with the radical left. The reason and logic of the capitalist system had led to the war, Dadaists believed, and their rejection of that ideology led to an embrace of chaos and irrationality in their art. Machines, engineering science, and Cubist elements were features of their work.

Dada artists met and formed groups of agreeing peers in Paris, Berlin, Cologne, and New York City who engaged in activities such as public gatherings, demonstrations, and publication of art and literary journals. Notable Dadaists included Richard Huelsenbeck, who established the Berlin group, and George Grosz, who called his work a protest, "confronting this earth of mutual destruction."

Republican Automatons: The 1920 painting, Republican Automatons, by George Grosz was an instance of Dadaist protestation art.

Arising from Dada activities during World War I and centered in Paris, Surrealism was a cultural movement that began in the early 1920s. Surrealism spread around the globe and impacted the visual arts, literature, theater, motion-picture show, and music. The movement besides informed political idea and practice, philosophy, and social theory.

The Elephant Celebes: Max Ernst'south 1921 oil painting, The Elephant Celebes, was an example of European Surrealism, which profoundly influenced the artistic culture of the United States.

Surrealist works featured elements of surprise, unexpected juxtapositions, and non sequitur. Many Surrealist artists and writers regarded their work as the textile expression of the movement'due south philosophy. The motion's leader, French anarchist and antifascist writer André Breton, emphasized that Surrealism was, above all, a revolutionary move. In 1924 he published the Surrealist Manifesto, which called the motion "pure psychic automatism." Castilian painter Salvador Dali, best known for his 1931 work, The Persistence of Retentivity, was 1 of the nigh famous practitioners of Surrealism.

The Persistence of Memory: Salvador Dali'south 1931 painting, The Persistence of Retentivity, is one of the most well-known examples of Surrealism.

Cinema

The 1920s are often referred to as the "Gilded Age of Hollywood," with "talkies" and the first all-colour features replacing silent films.

Learning Objectives

Describe cinema in the 1920s

Fundamental Takeaways

Key Points

• The 1920s in movie house spawned the first feature with sound effects and music, Don Juan, and the first movie with talking sequences, The Jazz  Singer.
• Following the rising of  talkies, big studios began acquiring motion-picture show-theater chains across the country.
• Cartoon shorts were popular in movie theaters during this time; the late 1920s saw the emergence of Walt Disney.
• Most Hollywood pictures adhered closely to formulas—Western, slapstick comedy,  musical, blithe cartoon, biopic—and the same creative teams often worked on film, fabricated by the aforementioned studio.

Primal Terms

• Talkies: The nickname given to movies with sound, which concluded the era of silent films in Hollywood.
• Golden Historic period of Hollywood: A menstruation during which Hollywood studios prolifically produced movies; it lasted from the cease of the silent era in American cinema in the late 1920s to the early 1960s.
• Don Juan: A 1926 Warner Bros. film, directed by Alan Crosland. Information technology was the first feature-length film with synchronized Vitaphone sound effects and musical soundtrack, though it has no spoken dialogue.

At the commencement of the 1920s, films were silent and colorless. By the cease of the decade, cinema had inverse significantly with major leaps in technology that marked the "Golden Age of Hollywood" and ended the era of the silent moving picture, which itself had ended the previous, widespread popularity of vaudeville theater. Box-function sales leapt to new heights every bit the studio system became the dominant business organization model in flick making.

Colour and Talkies

The get-go all-colour feature, The Toll of the Sea, was released in 1922, with the next big leap coming in 1926 with the Warner Brothers Pictures (later shortened to Warner Bros.) release of Don Juan,the commencement feature with audio effects and music. In 1927, Warner Bros. followed that cinematic milestone with another in the form of The Jazz Singer,the first sound feature to include limited talking sequences. This release arguably launched what came to be known as the "Aureate Age of Hollywood."

The Jazz Singer, 1927: Theatrical poster for The Jazz Singer, the offset feature film to include talking sequences, which began the era of "talkies."

The public went wild for "talkies," and film studios converted to audio almost overnight. In 1928, Warner Bros. releasedLights of New York , the first all-talking characteristic picture. In the same year, the first audio cartoon, "Dinner Fourth dimension," was released. Warner Bros. concluded the decade in 1929 by unveiling the starting time all-color, all-talking feature film,On with the Show.

Animation

Cartoon shorts, using the moving sketch technique of animation, were popular in movie theaters during this time. The late 1920s saw the emergence of Walt Disney and his eponymous studio. Disney'due south marquee grapheme, Mickey Mouse, made his debut in "Steamboat Willie" on Nov 18, 1928, at the Colony Theater in New York City. Mickey would proceed to star in more than 120 cartoon shorts, as well every bit in "The Mickey Mouse Club" and other specials. This jump-started Walt Disney Studios and led to the cosmos of other characters going into the 1930s. Oswald, a character created by Disney in 1927 earlier Mickey, was contracted by Universal Studios for distribution purposes and starred in a series of shorts between 1927 and 1928. He was the first Disney character to be merchandised.

Walt Disney: In 1928, Walt Disney gave the world "Steamboat Willie," aka Mickey Mouse, followed by numerous other cartoon characters who have become instantly recognizable.

The Studios and Stars

Virtually Hollywood pictures adhered closely to formulas—Western, slapstick comedy, musical, animated drawing, or biopic—and the aforementioned artistic teams ofttimes worked on films made by the aforementioned studio. Cedric Gibbons and Herbert Stothart always worked on MGM films, Alfred Newman worked at 20th Century Pull a fast one on for 20 years, Cecil B. DeMille's films were almost all made at Paramount Pictures, and manager Henry King'southward films were more often than not made for 20th Century Play a joke on.

Each studio had its own way and characteristic touches. Films were also easily recognizable as the product of a specific studio largely based on the actors who appeared. MGM, for example, claimed it had contracted, "more stars than there are in heaven."

The period saw the emergence of box-role stars, many of whom are nonetheless household names, such equally Mae Murray, Ramón Novarro, Rudolph Valentino, Charlie Chaplin, Buster Keaton, Harold Lloyd, Warner Baxter, Clara Bow, Louise Brooks, Bebe Daniels, Billie Pigeon, Dorothy Mackaill, Mary Astor, Nancy Carroll, Janet Gaynor, Charles Farrell, William Haines, Conrad Nagel, John Gilbert, Greta Garbo, Dolores del Río, Norma Talmadge, Colleen Moore, Nita Naldi, John Barrymore, Norma Shearer, Joan Crawford, Mary Pickford, Douglas Fairbanks, Anna May Wong, and Al Jolson.

Louise Brooks: American actress Louise Brooks was one of the box-office stars who became famous in the 1920s at the outset of the "Aureate Historic period of Hollywood."

Each of these stars was contracted to work for a specific studio and distribution visitor, which was one attribute of the studio organization that became the dominant Hollywood business organisation model and continues today, albeit in a far less restrictive course that does not tie actors to any specific company.

Theater Monopolies

After the release and huge success of The Jazz Singer in 1927, Warner Bros. was able to larn its own string of moving picture theaters, purchasing Stanley Theaters and First National Productions in 1928. MGM had owned the Loews string of theaters since its formation in 1924, while the Fox Film Corporation owned the Fob Theatre concatenation. Paramount, which had already acquired Balaban and Katz in 1926, purchased a number of theaters in the late 1920s, to the point of holding a monopoly on theaters in Detroit, Michigan. By the 1930s, all of America's theaters were endemic by the "Large Five" studios: MGM, Paramount Pictures, RKO, Warner Bros., and 2oth Century Play a trick on.

The Toll of the Sea, 1922: The Toll of the Bounding main, released in 1922, was the starting time colour characteristic made in Hollywood.

Flappers

Flappers were the personification of a new spirit in fashion, dance, and music in the 1920s.

Learning Objectives

Analyze the changing social norms characterized by the rising of the flappers

Cardinal Takeaways

Central Points

• Flappers  were immature women known for their styles of brusk hair, direct waists, and to a higher place-the-knee hemlines, besides as for their general disdain for social and sexual norms.
• Flappers favored a young and boyish style in women'southward fashion, which largely emerged as a effect of French fashions, especially those pioneered past the French designer Coco Chanel. Brusque hair, flattened breasts, and straight waists were some mutual features of this look.
• Dance clubs and contests became very popular in the 1920s. Classical pieces, operettas, and folk music were all transformed into pop dance melodies in club to satisfy the public craze for dancing. The Cotton wool Club and the Savoy Ballroom were popular venues.
• The most popular dances during the decade were the fox-trot, flit, and American tango. From the early 1920s, a  variety  of eccentric novelty dances were also developed including the Breakaway, Charleston, and Lindy Hop.

Key Terms

• Musical: A phase operation, prove, or film that includes singing, dancing, and musical numbers performed by the bandage.
• Jazz: A musical genre that originated in African-American communities during the belatedly nineteenth and early on twentieth centuries. It composite various styles including brass band, dejection, and traditional African music to become a unique, international genre that continues to evolve today.
• Charleston: A popular trip the light fantastic during the 1920s, named for the oldest urban center in South Carolina.
• Coco Chanel: (19 August 1883–ten January 1971) A French designer of women's clothes and founder of the Chanel brand. She is widely regarded as one of the greatest designers in the history of fashion.

The 1920s saw the ascent of the flapper, a new breed of immature women who wore short skirts, bobbed their pilus, danced, and flouted social and sexual norms. Flappers were known for their style and the widespread popularization of new cultural trends that accompanied it. They personified the musical and trip the light fantastic movements emerging from the trip the light fantastic toe clubs playing jazz and new versions of old music, which became enormously pop in the 1920s and into the early 1930s.

Flapper Way

Jazz and other new musical and trip the light fantastic toe forms exploded onto social club in the 1920s. This pop-culture movement was personified by the flappers, whose fashion styles represented their gratis spirits and new social openness. This mode largely emerged equally a result of French fashions, especially those pioneered past the French designer Gabrielle Bonheur "Coco" Chanel. Called garçonne in French ("boy" with a feminine suffix), flapper style aimed to make girls announced young and boyish: curt hair, flattened breasts, and straight waists were common features of this look. Although the styles typically associated at present with flappers did non fully sally until nearly 1926, there was an early association in the public mind between unconventional appearance, outrageous behavior, and the word "flapper."

Coco Chanel, 1920: Gabrielle "Coco" Chanel was a French designer who was highly influential in the flapper fashion fashion of the 1920s.

The flapper await included short, disheveled hair in boyish styles such every bit the "bob cut," while finger waving was used as a ways of styling. The evolving flapper appearance required "heavy makeup" in comparison to what had previously been acceptable outside of professional use in the theater. With the invention of the metal lipstick container and meaty mirrors, bee stung lips and an emphatic oral cavity came into faddy. Huge, dark optics heavily outlined in mascara and kohl-rimmed, were in manner. Chroma came into style when it ceased to be a messy application procedure.

Pale pare was originally considered to exist the most attractive, but tanned skin became increasingly popular after Coco Chanel donned a tan after spending too much time in the sun on holiday. A tan suggested a life of leisure, without the onerous need to work. In this way, women aspired to wait fit, athletic, and good for you. Jewelry usually consisted of Art Deco pieces, including beaded necklaces and brooches. Horn-rimmed glasses were also pop.

Despite any scandalous images flappers generated, their look became fashionable in a toned-downwards form among respectable older women. Significantly, the flappers removed the corset from female fashion, raised brim and gown hemlines, and popularized brusque hair for women. Flapper dresses were direct and loose, leaving the arms bare and dropping the waistline to the hips. Silk or rayon stockings were held up by garters. Skirts rose to just below the knee past 1927, assuasive flashes of leg to be seen when a girl danced or walked through a breeze. High heels between two and three inches also became popular.

Flappers did away with corsets and pantaloons in favor of "stride-in" panties and simple bosom bodices to keep their chests in identify while dancing. They likewise wore new, softer and suppler corsets that reached to their hips, smoothing the whole frame, giving them a straight, up-and-down appearance, as opposed to the old corsets that slenderized the waist and accented the hips and bust.

The Flapper Magazine: The embrace of the November 1922 issue of The Flapper magazine.

Trip the light fantastic Music, Clubs, and Contests

In the flapper menses, dance music took parts of various existing musical styles and created a new form. Classical pieces, operettas, and folk music were all transformed into pop trip the light fantastic toe melodies in order to satiate the public craze for dancing. For instance, many of the songs from the 1929 Technicolor musical operetta, The Rogue Song, starring the Metropolitan Opera star Lawrence Tibbett, were rearranged and released equally trip the light fantastic toe music and became pop club hits in 1929.

The advent of "talkies," move pictures with synchronized sound, made musicals all the rage. Hollywood picture studios flooded the box office with extravagant and lavish musical films, many of which were filmed in early Technicolor, a process that created color motility pictures rather than the starker black-and-white films. One of the nigh pop of these musicals, Aureate Diggers of Broadway, became the highest-grossing film of the decade in 1929.

Gold Diggers of Broadway: The 1929 musical, Gold Diggers of Broadway, became the highest-grossing moving-picture show of the decade.

The Harlem neighborhood of New York City played a cardinal part in the development of dance styles by serving every bit the location of several pop entertainment venues where people from all walks of life, races, and classes came together. The Cotton Social club featured blackness performers and catered to a white clientele, while the Savoy Ballroom catered to a more often than not black clientele.

Dance Styles

Dance clubs across the United States sponsored contests in which dancers invented and competed with new moves and professionals began to hone their skills in tap trip the light fantastic and other current moves. The most popular dances throughout the decade were the trick-trot, waltz, and American tango. Large numbers of recordings labeled under these styles gave rise to a generation of famous recording and radio artists.

From the early 1920s, however, the trip the light fantastic toe scene produced a diversity of eccentric trends. The start of these were the Breakaway and the Charleston, which were both based on African-American musical styles and beats, including the widely popular dejection. The Charleston's popularity exploded after its feature in two 1922 Broadway shows. A cursory Black Lesser dance craze, originating from the Apollo Theater, swept trip the light fantastic toe halls from 1926 to 1927, replacing the Charleston in popularity. By 1927, the Lindy Hop, based on the Breakaway and the Charleston and integrating elements of tap, became the dominant social dance and was the forebear of Swing dancing.

Josephine Bakery does the Charleston: Celebrated singer Josephine Baker dances the Charleston, one of the novelty dances that swept pop culture in the 1920s.

The Eugenics Movement

Eugenics, a prejudicial pseudoscience with roots in the belatedly nineteenth and early on twentieth centuries, gained popularity and impacted American land and federal laws in the 1920s.

Learning Objectives

Draw the goals and consequences of the eugenics movement

Fundamental Takeaways

Key Points

• The eugenics  motility, which had its roots in European pseudoscience, played a major role in debates on U.S.  clearing  policy, peculiarly with the passage of the Immigration Deed of 1924. Many believed  immigrants  were inferior and should be prevented from marrying and breeding.
• Land laws were written in the tardily nineteenth and early twentieth centuries to prohibit matrimony and forcefulness sterilization of the mentally ill in order to forbid the "passing on" of mental illness to the side by side generation.
• Both class and race factored in to eugenic definitions of "fit" and "unfit." By using intelligence testing, American eugenicists asserted that social mobility was indicative of ane's genetic fitness.
• American eugenicists provided the and then-chosen scientific proof used to justify racial oppression in the United States and Europe. Nazi administrators on trial for war crimes in Nuremberg after World War II justified more than 450,000 mass sterilizations by citing American eugenics programs as their inspiration.

Fundamental Terms

• Charles B. Davenport: (1866–1944) A prominent American eugenicist and biologist. He was one of the leaders of the American eugenics motility, which was directly involved in the sterilization of around sixty,000 "unfit" Americans and strongly influenced the Holocaust in Europe.
• eugenics: A social philosophy that advocates the improvement of human hereditary qualities through selective breeding.
• Francis Galton: (1822–1911) A British sociologist and anthropologist who coined the term "eugenics" and promoted the idea of the survival of the fittest in humans through selective breeding.

Eugenics was a field sociological and anthropological study that became popular in the belatedly nineteenth and early twentieth centuries as a method of preserving and improving the population through cultivation of ascendant gene groups. Rather than considered scientific genetics, all the same, eugenics is at present more often than not associated with racist and nativist elements who desired so-chosen "scientific" show for prejudicial beliefs and authorities policies. The eugenics motility in the United States was used to justify laws enabling forced sterilizations of the mentally ill and prohibiting marriages and child bearing by immigrants, while in Europe, eugenics theories were used by the Nazi regime in Deutschland to justify thousands of sterilizations and, later, widespread murder.

Origins and Proliferation

In its time, eugenics was touted as scientific and progressive, the natural application of knowledge about breeding to the arena of human life. Researchers interested in familial mental disorders conducted studies to document the heritability of illnesses such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and depression. Rather than true science, though, eugenics was but an ill-considered social philosophy aimed at improving the quality of the human being population by increasing reproduction betwixt those with genes considered desirable—Nordic, Germanic, and Anglo-Saxon peoples—and limiting procreation by those whose genetic stock was seen equally less favorable or unlikely to improve the human factor pool. The method considered nigh feasible in attaining this goal was the prevention of marriage and convenance amidst targeted groups and individuals, merely over time, the far more than extreme action of sterilization became acceptable.

While these ideas existed for centuries, the mod eugenics movement tin can be traced to the U.k. in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The theory of evolution fabricated famous by Charles Darwin was used past English sociologist and anthropologist Francis Galton, a half cousin of Darwin, to promote the thought of a man survival of the fittest that could be enacted through selective breeding. He coined the term "eugenics" in 1883, and in 1909, wrote the foreword to the starting time volume of the Eugenics Review,the journal of the Eugenics Education Society, which named him as its honorary president.

Francis Galton: A half cousin of Charles Darwin, Francis Galton founded field of eugenics and promoted the comeback of the human gene pool through selective breeding.

Legitimizing and Legalizing

Eugenicists and supporters began organizing and holding formal discussions and conferences and publishing papers that proliferated through Europe and America. Three International Eugenics Congresses were held betwixt 1912 and 1932, the beginning taking place in London. Leonard Darwin, son of Charles, presided over the meeting of about 400 delegates from numerous countries—including British luminaries such equally the Master Justice Lord Balfour, and the First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill. The coming together served as an indication of the growing popularity of the eugenics move.

2d International Eugenics Congress logo, 1921: Eugenics was a popular pseudoscience in the early decades of the twentieth century and was promoted through three International Eugenics Congresses between 1912 and 1932.

The American eugenics movement was rooted in the biological determinist ideas of Galton and included those who believed in the genetic superiority of specific Caucasian groups, supported strict immigration and anti-miscegenation laws, and supported the forcible sterilization of the poor, disabled, and "immoral."

Both class and race factored into eugenic definitions of "fit" and "unfit." Using intelligence testing, American eugenicists asserted that social mobility was indicative of one's genetic fitness. This reaffirmed the existing class and racial hierarchies and explained why the upper to middle class was predominately white, with heart to upper form status beingness a mark of "superior strains." Eugenicists believed poverty to exist a feature of genetic inferiority, which meant that that those deemed "unfit" were predominately of the lower classes. Considering poverty was associated with prostitution and "mental idiocy," women of the lower classes were the first to be deemed "unfit" and "promiscuous." These women, who were primarily immigrants or women of color, were discouraged from bearing children, and were encouraged to use nativity control.

American eugenics research was funded by distinguished philanthropists and carried out at prestigious
universities, trickling down to classrooms where information technology was presented as a serious science. In 1906, J.H. Kellogg provided funding to assistance found the Race Betterment Foundation in Battle Creek, Michigan. The Eugenics Record Function (ERO) was founded in Cold Bound Harbor, New York, in 1911 past the renowned biologist Charles B. Davenport, using money from both the Harriman railroad fortune and the Carnegie Institution.

Charles Benedict Davenport: American biologist Charles B. Davenport founded the Eugenics Record Office in 1911.

Laws were written in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries in America to prohibit marriage and to force sterilization of the mentally ill in order to prevent the "passing on" of mental affliction to the adjacent generation. The first state to introduce a compulsory sterilization bill was Michigan in 1897, merely the proposed law failed to garner plenty votes past legislators to exist adopted. 8 years later, Pennsylvania's country legislators passed a sterilization bill that was vetoed by the governor. Indiana became the first state to enact sterilization legislation in 1907, followed closely by Washington and California in 1909.

Consequences

Men and women were compulsorily sterilized for unlike reasons. Men were sterilized to care for their aggression and to eliminate their criminal behavior, while women were sterilized to control the results of their sexuality. Because women bore children, eugenicists held women more accountable than men for the reproduction of the less "desirable" members of order. Eugenicists, therefore, targeted generally women in their efforts to regulate the nascency rate, to "protect" white racial health, and to weed out the
"defectives" of society.

Sterilization rates across the land were relatively low, California being the exception, until the 1927 Supreme Court case Buck 5. Bong that legitimized the forced sterilization of patients at a Virginia home for the mentally retarded. These statutes were non abolished until the mid-twentieth century, with approximately 60,000 Americans legally sterilized.

Prior to the sterilization ruling in the Supreme Court, eugenicists had already played an of import role in government policy by serving equally skillful directorate on the threat of "inferior stock" from eastern and southern Europe during the Congressional argue over immigration in the early on 1920s. This led to passage of the federal Immigration Human activity of 1924, which reduced the number of immigrants from abroad to 15 percent from previous years.

Harry H. Laughlin: Harry H. Laughlin served as manager of the Eugenics Tape Office in Common cold Spring Harbor, New York.

There are likewise direct links between progressive American eugenicists such as Harry H. Laughlin and racial oppression in Europe. Laughlin wrote the Virginia model statute that was the basis for the Nazi Ernst Rudin's Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring. Before the realization of death camps in Globe War Two, the idea that eugenics would lead to genocide was non taken seriously by the boilerplate American. When Nazi administrators went on trial for war crimes in Nuremberg after the war, all the same, they justified more than 450,000 mass sterilizations in less than a decade by citing U.Southward. eugenics programs and policies as their inspiration. These sterilizations were the precursor to the Holocaust, the Nazi attempt at genocide against Jews and other indigenous groups they accounted unfavorable to the human gene pool.

The Southern Renaissance

The Southern Renaissance literary movement of the 1920s and 1930s bankrupt from the romantic view of the Confederacy.

Learning Objectives

Describe the Southern Renaissance

Key Takeaways

Fundamental Points

• Authors of the Southern Renaissance addressed three major themes: the burden of history related to  slavery and loss, conservative Southern culture, and the region'due south association with racism and slavery.
• The formation of the Fugitives, a group of poets and critics based in Nashville post-obit Earth War I, is often referred to every bit the get-go of the Southern Renaissance. William Faulkner is regarded as the Southern Renaissance's near influential and famous author.
• Opposition to  industrialization  in the South post-obit World War I was a popular theme among Southern Renaissance writers, who became known as "Southern  Agrarians."
• African-American writers from the South, such every bit Richard Wright, were not considered part of the Southern Renaissance movement, which consisted exclusively of white authors.

Key Terms

• The Fugitives: A group of poets and literary scholars who came together at Vanderbilt University in Nashville, Tennessee, United States, around 1920.
• William Faulkner: (1897–1962) An American author and Nobel laureate from Oxford,
  Mississippi. He is best known for his 1929 novel, The Sound and the Fury.
• H.L. Mencken: (1880–1956) A announcer, satirist, cultural critic, and scholar. Known as the "Sage of Baltimore," he is regarded equally one of the virtually influential American writers and prose stylists of the starting time half of the twentieth century.

The Southern Renaissance was a movement that reinvigorated American Southern literature in the 1920s and 1930s. The writers of the movement broke from common Southern cultural literary themes, notably the regrettable fall of the Confederacy, to address more personal and modernized viewpoints including opposition to industrialization and the South's abiding racism. The Southern Renaissance included famed writers such as William Faulkner, Tennessee Williams, and Robert Penn Warren. Perchance ironically, however, this motion that explored racial questions and themes seemed to exclude African-American writers of the time.

Origins and Themes

In the 1920s, the satirist H.Fifty. Mencken led the assail on the genteel tradition in American literature, ridiculing the provincialism of American intellectual life. In his 1920 essay, "The Sahara of the Bozart," a pun on a Southern pronunciation of "Beaux Arts," he singled out the South equally the most provincial and intellectually arid region of the United States, claiming that since the Civil War, intellectual and cultural life there had gone into terminal decline. This created a storm of protest from inside conservative circles in the South. Many emerging Southern writers, however, already highly critical of contemporary life in the South, were emboldened by Mencken's essay. In response to the attacks of Mencken and his imitators, Southern writers were provoked to reassert Southern uniqueness and engage in a deeper exploration of the theme of Southern identity.

Henry Louis Mencken: H.L. Mencken was an influential American writer and social critic who unwittingly helped to launch the Southern Renaissance literary movement.

The Fugitives

The start of the Southern Renaissance is often traced back to the activities of a grouping known as " The Fugitives," a collection of poets and critics based at Vanderbilt University in Nashville, Tennessee, just after the Earth War I. The group included John Crowe Ransom, Donald Davidson, Allen Tate, Robert Penn Warren, and others. Together they created the magazine, The Fugitive (1922–1925), so named considering the editors appear that they had fled, "from zip faster than from the high-caste Brahmins of the Old South."

The emergence of the Southern Renaissance as a literary and cultural motility too has been seen every bit a consequence of the opening upwardly of the predominantly rural South to outside influences due to the industrial expansion that took place in the region during and after World War I. Southern opposition to industrialization was expressed in the famous essay collection, I'll Accept My Stand: The S and the Agrarian Tradition (1930), written by authors and critics from the Southern Renaissance who came to be known every bit "Southern Agrarians."

Previously, Southern writers tended to focus on historical romances about the "Lost Cause" of the Confederate States of America, normally known as the "Confederacy." This writing glorified the heroism of the Confederate Army and civilian population during the Civil War and the supposedly "idyllic culture" that existed in the antebellum S. Southern Renaissance writers broke from this tradition by addressing iii major themes in their works. The commencement was the burden of history in a identify where many people notwithstanding personally remembered slavery, Reconstruction, and a devastating military defeat. The second was the Southward's conservative culture, specifically addressing how an private could exist without losing a sense of identity in a region where family unit, religion, and customs were more highly valued than one'south personal and social life. The final theme was the South's troubling history with regard to racial issues.

Considering of the chronological altitude these writers had from the Civil State of war and slavery, they were able to bring objectivity to writings about the Due south. They also employed new, mod techniques such as stream of consciousness and complex narratives. Amongst the writers of the Southern Renaissance, William Faulkner is arguably the most influential and famous equally the recipient of the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1949. Beyond Faulkner, playwright Tennessee Williams (Cat on a Hot Tin can Roof, The Glass Menagerie), writer Robert Penn Warren (All the King'southward Men), and others including Caroline Gordon, Elizabeth Madox Roberts, Katherine Anne Porter, and Allen Tate were classified as Southern Renaissance writers.

William Faulkner, 1954: William Faulkner, writer of the 1929 novel, The Sound and the Fury, was a leading voice in the Southern Renaissance motion.

Legacy

The Southern Renaissance inspired many Southern writers of the 1940s, '50s, and '60s, including authors Reynolds Price and Walker Percy, poet James Dickey, influential Southern Gothic move members Flannery O'Connor and Carson McCullers, Pulitzer Prize and Presidential Medal of Freedom recipient Eudora Welty, and Harper Lee, who won the 1961 Pulitzer Prize for her novel, To Kill a Mockingbird, which is considered a archetype of American literature.

Exclusion of African Americans

Despite many writers of the Southern Renaissance exploring the Southward'southward history of racism and slavery with an eye toward healing those wounds, none of the prominent African-American writers of the day were seen every bit part of this literary movement. While the Harlem Renaissance was considered a celebration and rebirth of African culture in America, at that place were African-American writers who hailed from the Southward who were not necessarily slotted into either of the "Renaissance" groups.

Some of the almost outspoken criticisms against the idea of the lost cause of the Confederacy came from African-American, Southern writers prior to World War I, including from Charles West. Chesnutt, who penned the novels, The House Behind the Cedars in 1900 and The Marrow of Tradition the following year. Even so African-American writers were not considered office of the Southern literary tradition as divers by the white, primarily male person authors who saw themselves as its creators and guardians. This is a rather glaring omission, considering the prominence of other notable African-American writers from the South such equally Richard Wright, a Mississippi native and writer of the renowned 1940 novel, Native Son.

Richard Wright: Native Son author Richard Wright was one of the notable African-American authors who has been arguably overlooked every bit part of the Southern literary tradition.

The Harlem Renaissance

The Harlem Renaissance was an arts and literary movement in the 1920s that brought African-American culture to mainstream America.

Learning Objectives

Analyze the Harlem Renaissance

Fundamental Takeaways

Central Points

• Racial consciousness was the prevailing theme of the Harlem Renaissance, an African-American cultural movement in the 1920s named for the historically black Harlem neighborhood of New York City.
• The Renaissance was built upon the "New Negro" motion, which was founded in 1917 by Hubert Harrison and Matthew Kotleski every bit a reaction to race and class issues, including calls for political equality and the end of segregation.
• In several essays included in the 1925 anthology,The New Negro, editor Alain Locke contrasted the "Onetime Negro" with the "New Negro" by stressing African-American assertiveness and self-conviction during the years following World State of war I and the Peachy  Migration.
• Seeking to counteract the rising in racism during the postwar years, black artists, writers, and musicians developed unique styles that challenged pervading stereotypes of African-American culture equally the Harlem Renaissance developed.
• While black-owned businesses supported the Harlem Renaissance, the movement also relied on the patronage of white Americans for the dissemination of its works.

Primal Terms

• Marcus Garvey: (1887–1940) A Jamaican politician, publisher, journalist, entrepreneur, and orator who was a staunch proponent of the Blackness Nationalism and Pan-Africanism movements.
• New Negro Move: A militant movement, founded in in 1916–1917 past Hubert Harrison and Negro League baseball game star Matthew Kotleski, that was associated with the Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s.
• Alain Locke: (1885–1954) An American writer, philosopher, educator, and patron of the arts.

The Harlem Renaissance was a cultural movement that spanned the 1920s and 1930s. It sprang upward as part of the "New Negro" movement, a political initiative founded in 1917 and after named after the 1925 album past Alain Locke. Though the Harlem Renaissance was centered in the Harlem neighborhood of New York Urban center, many French-speaking black writers from African and Caribbean colonies who lived in Paris were also influenced by the Renaissance. The zenith of this "flowering of Negro literature," as James Weldon Johnson preferred to call the Harlem Renaissance, was placed between 1924 and 1929.

New Negro Movement

"New Negro" was a term used in African-American discourse, beginning in 1895 and lasting for the first three decades of the twentieth century, to characterize an outspoken advocacy of dignity and a refusal to submit quietly to the practices and laws of Jim Crow racial segregation. Popularized by writer and philosopher Alain LeRoy Locke, the New Negro concept received its greatest attention effectually 1917 to 1928, when it became meliorate known every bit the "Harlem Renaissance."

For African Americans, World War I highlighted the widening gap between U.Southward. rhetoric regarding, "the war to make the earth safe for democracy," and the reality of disenfranchised and exploited black farmers in the South and the poor and alienated residents of northern slums. In France, black soldiers experienced the kind of freedom they had never known in the United States, merely returned to find that discrimination confronting blacks was just as active as it had been before the war. Many African-American soldiers who fought in segregated units during World State of war I, like the Harlem Hellfighters, came habitation to a nation whose citizens often did not respect their accomplishments.

In 1916–1917, Hubert Harrison and Negro League baseball star Matthew Kotleski founded the "New Negro" motility, which energized the African-American community with race- and class-conscious demands for political equality and an end to segregation and lynching, also as calls for armed self-defence force when appropriate.

In a 1925 anthology, The New Negro, which grew out of the 1924 special issue of Survey Graphic on Harlem, editor Alain Locke contrasted the "Old Negro" with the "New Negro" by stressing African-American assertiveness and self-confidence during the years following World War I and the Keen Migration. Race pride had already been office of literary and political self-expression amongst African-Americans in the nineteenth century. Notwithstanding, it found a new purpose and definition in the journalism, fiction, poetry, music, sculpture, and paintings of many figures associated with the Harlem Renaissance.

Alain Locke: A portrait of Alain LeRoy Locke, leader of the New Negro movement and inspirational figure of the Harlem Renaissance.

No 1 better articulated the hopes and possibilities associated with the idea and ideal of the "New Negro" than the Harvard-trained philosophy professor Alain LeRoy Locke, who afterwards described himself as the "midwife" to aspiring young black writers of the 1920s. According to Locke, The New Negro, whose publication by Albert and Charles Boni in December 1925 symbolized the culmination of the first phase of the New Negro Renaissance in literature, was assembled, "to certificate the New Negro culturally and socially—to annals the transformations of the inner and outer life of the Negro in America that have and then significantly taken place in the final few years." Highlighting its global scope, Locke compared the New Negro movement with the, "nascent movements of folk expression and cocky determination" that were taking identify internationally.

Despite the challenges of race and class in the 1920s, a new spirit of hope and pride marked blackness activity and expression in all areas. The New Negro movement insisted on self-definition, cocky-expression, and cocky-conclusion, striving for what Locke chosen, "spiritual emancipation." The Harlem Renaissance participants who emerged from this new idealism, regardless of their generational or ideological orientation in aesthetics or politics, shared a sense of possibility. The many debates regarding art and propaganda, representation and identity, absorption versus militancy, and parochialism versus globalism enriched perspectives on issues of fine art, culture, politics, and ideology that take emerged in African-American culture.

Origins of the Renaissance

During the early portion of the twentieth century, Harlem became home to a growing "Negro" centre class. In 1910, a large block forth 135th Street and Fifth Avenue was purchased by various African-American realtors and a church building group. Many more African Americans arrived during Earth War I. Due to the war, the migration of laborers from Europe virtually ceased, while the war effort resulted in a massive demand for unskilled industrial labor. The Great Migration brought hundreds of thousands of African Americans from the Southward to cities such as Chicago, Philadelphia, Cleveland, and New York. Amid them were a slap-up number of artists whose influence would come to bear, peculiarly in jazz music.

Despite the increasing popularity of Negro culture, virulent white racism, often past more than recent ethnic immigrants, continued to impact African-American communities. Race riots and other civil uprisings occurred throughout the Usa during the and then-called Red Summertime of 1919, reflecting economic contest over jobs and housing in many cities, besides equally tensions over social territories.

Theatre

The first stage of the Harlem Renaissance started in the late 1910s, notably with the 1917 premiere of Three Plays for a Negro Theatre. These plays, written by white playwright Ridgely Torrence, featured African-American actors conveying complex homo emotions and yearnings. They rejected the stereotypes of the greasepaint and minstrel-evidence traditions. James Weldon Johnson in 1917 called the premieres of these plays, "the almost of import unmarried event in the entire history of the Negro in the American Theater."

Literature

In 1917 Hubert Harrison, "The Father of Harlem Radicalism," founded the Liberty League and The Voice, the first organization and the first newspaper, respectively, of the "New Negro" movement. Harrison's organisation and newspaper were political, only likewise emphasized the arts, with his newspaper including "Verse for the People" and book-review sections. In 1927, in the Pittsburgh Courier newspaper, Harrison challenged the notion of the renaissance. He argued that the "Negro Literary Renaissance" notion disregarded, "the stream of literary and artistic products which had flowed uninterruptedly from Negro writers from 1850 to the present," and said that the so-chosen "renaissance" was largely a white invention. It is true that W.E.B. Du Bois had introduced the notion of "twoness" in his 1903 volume, The Souls of Black Folk, which explored a divided awareness of one's identity that was a unique critique of the social ramifications of racial consciousness. This piece of work preempted the Harlem Renaissance, but also undoubtedly offered some degree of inspiration and fodder for its writers.

The works of the Harlem Renaissance appealed to a wide audition and marked a proliferation of African-American cultural influence, with magazines such as The Crisis, the journal of the National Association for the Advocacy of Colored People (NAACP), and Opportunity, the publication of the National Urban League, both employing Harlem Renaissance writers on their staffs, while white-owned publishing houses and magazines also supported the motion. Many authors began to publish novels, magazines, and newspapers during this time. Notable Harlem Renaissance figures included Locke, Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, Arna Bontemps, Nella Larson, Wallace Thurman, Countee Cullen, Jessie Fauset, Claude McKay, Zora Neale Hurston, James Weldon Johnson, Jean Toomer, Alain Locke, and Eric D. Walrond.

Zora Neale Hurston: Writer Zora Neale Hurston, best known for her novel, Their Eyes Were Watching God, was one of the literary luminaries of the Harlem Renaissance.

Music

A new way of playing the piano, called the "Harlem Stride Fashion," emerged during the Harlem Renaissance and helped blur the lines between poor Negros and socially elite Negros. The traditional jazz band was composed primarily of brass instruments and considered a symbol of the Due south, but the piano was considered an instrument of the wealthy. With this instrumental modification to the existing genre, wealthy African Americans now had more access to jazz music. Its popularity presently spread throughout the country. Innovation and liveliness were of import characteristics of performers in the ancestry of jazz. Musicians at the fourth dimension—including Fats Waller, Duke Ellington, Jelly Coil Morton, and Willie "The Panthera leo" Smith—showed great talent and competitiveness and were considered to have laid the foundation for futurity musicians of their genre.

During this time period, the musical mode of blacks was condign more and more attractive to whites. White novelists, dramatists, and composers started to exploit the musical tendencies and themes of African Americans in their own works. Composers used poems written by African-American poets in their songs, while implementing the rhythms, harmonies, and melodies of African-American music—such every bit dejection, spirituals, and jazz—into their concert pieces. African Americans also began to merge with white artists in the classical world of musical composition, which had long been pop amongst white audiences, peculiarly among the middle course and wealthy with roots going back to Europe where classical music had been dominant for centuries.

Patronage

The Harlem Renaissance rested on a support system of black patrons and black-owned businesses and publications. Withal it besides received a great deal of patronage from white Americans such as writer and photographer Carl Van Vechten and philanthropist Charlotte Osgood Bricklayer, who provided various forms of assistance, opening doors that otherwise would have remained closed to the publication of work outside the African-American community. This support frequently took the course of patronage or publication. Other whites were interested in so-called "primitive" cultures, as many viewed black American civilisation at that fourth dimension, and wanted to see such "primitive" influences in the work coming out of the Harlem Renaissance.

Carl Van Vechten: Writer and photographer Carl Van Vechten was one of the white patrons and proponents of the Harlem Renaissance.

Bear on

The Harlem Renaissance helped lay the foundation for the mail service-World War II phase of the Ceremonious Rights movement. Moreover, many black artists who rose to artistic maturity afterward were inspired by this literary movement. The Harlem Renaissance was more than a literary or artistic movement; it possessed a certain sociological evolution—particularly through a new racial consciousness—through racial integration, as seen in the Dorsum to Africa movement led by Marcus Garvey.

Langston Hughes, photographed by Carl Van Vechten, 1936: Langston Hughes was a prominent novelist and poet who emerged from the Harlem Renaissance.

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Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ushistory/chapter/a-culture-of-change/